LAW †English Legal System

LAW – English Legal System Free Online Research Papers ‘The law’ may be used to describe a scientific fact (e.g. the law of gravity), a particular system (e.g. the law of England) or a recognized legal area (e.g. the law of contract). Nevertheless, more generally, it connotes a series of rules (each called ‘a law’) that governs people’s behaviour. These rules may sometimes be supplemented by certain established principles, and common examples in English Law are the maxims ignorantia juris neminem excusat (‘ignorance of the law excuses no man’), likewise ex turpi causa non oritur actio (‘a legal action does not arise from a base cause’ e.g. a contract to commit a crime is unenforceable). Morality and law The value-concepts of right and wrong form the basis of morality and, although this is closely interwoven with religion, a distinction must be drawn between the two – as one concerns the relationship between people, whereas the other establishes it between mankind and some higher power. Nowadays the law regards some kinds of behaviour (e.g. parking offences) as criminal although, in general, they may not be looked upon as morally wrong. Likewise, other forms of conduct (e.g. adultery) may be morally condemned but not legally prohibited. Yet again, some practices considered to be immoral (e.g. lying) are illegal only in certain circumstances (as in the case of perjury or misleading trade descriptions). It has been argued that the law should proscribe all immoral acts, as failure to do so will ultimately cause the disintegration of society. The impracticality of this, however, stems from the plurality of cultures and values in our society (whereby there is a total lack of consensus over particular moral issues, e.g. abortion), as well as from the evolutionary nature of morality (whereby what is immoral and criminal at one moment might not be so shortly afterwards). As deviance (the breaking of rules) can be said to be created by the very framing of those rules one should examine the manner in which any particular moral attitude (as oppose to a competing one) becomes embodied in the law. Often it simply reflects the views of a restricted section of society (politicians, judges, etc.) at one moment. Legislation of morality ‘for its own sake’ is notably exemplified by the so called victimless crimes which involve only the participants themselves (e.g. smoking cannabis). There is thus a school of thought to the effect that, although morality and law are interrelated, there are some aspects of human behaviour w hich may be considered immoral but which should not be legally proscribed so long as they do not harm other people (e.g. homosexual practices between consenting adults in private). The Concept of Justice Justice, the ultimate goal towards which the law should strive, is but one segment of morality because, although unjust acts (e.g. unjustifiably punishing one child more than another) may be considered immoral, the converse is not true and immoral acts (e.g. cruelty to children) cannot be described as just. ‘Fairness’ is the closest synonym to justice, a vital function of which is the attainment of equality. Some lawyers tend only to be concerned with formal justice – i.e. fairness in the application of valid law and the conduct of trials – whereby like cases are treated alike under existing rules which are generally and impartially applied. Laymen, however, are more prone to take entirely subjective views on substantive justice – i.e. fairness in the substance of the law and in the outcome of trials. Research Papers on LAW - English Legal SystemCapital PunishmentComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseMoral and Ethical Issues in Hiring New EmployeesArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)Genetic EngineeringThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite Religion

The Railways in the Industrial Revolution

The Railways in the Industrial Revolution If the steam engine is the icon of the industrial revolution, it’s most famous incarnation is the steam driven locomotive. The union of steam and iron rails produced the railways, a new form of transport which boomed in the later nineteenth century, affecting industry and social life. The Development of the Railways In 1767 Richard Reynolds created a set of rails for moving coal at Coalbrookdale; these were initially wood  but became iron rails. In 1801 the first Act of Parliament was passed for the creation of a ‘railway’, although at this point it was a horse pulled carts on rails. Small, scattered railway development continued, but at the same time, the steam engine was evolving. In 1801 Trevithic invented a steam driven locomotive which ran on roads, and 1813 William Hedly built Puffing Billy for use in mines, followed a year later by George Stephenson’s engine. In 1821 Stephenson built the Stockton to Darlington railway using iron rails and steam power with the aim of breaking the local monopoly of the canal owners. The initial plan had been for horses to provide the energy, but Stephenson pushed for steam. The importance of this has been exaggerated, as it still remained as â€Å"fast† as a canal (i.e. slow). The first time a railway used a true steam locomotive running on rails was the Liverpool to Manchester railway in 1830. This is probably the true landmark in rail and mirrored the route of the groundbreaking Bridgewater Canal. Indeed, the owner of the canal had opposed the railway to protect his investment. The Liverpool to Manchester railway provided the management blueprint for later development, creating a permanent staff and recognizing the potential of passenger travel. Indeed, until the 1850s railways made more from passengers than freight. In the 1830s canal companies, challenged by new railways, cut prices and largely kept their business. As railways were rarely connected they were generally used for local freight and passengers. However, industrialists soon realized that railways could make a clear profit, and in 1835-37, and 1844-48 there was such a boom in the creation of railways that ‘railway mania’ was said to have swept the country. In this later period, there were 10,000 acts creating railways. Of course, this mania encouraged the creation of lines which were unviable and in competition with each other. The government largely adopted a laissez-faire attitude  but did intervene to try and stop accidents and dangerous competition. They also passed a law in 1844 ordering third class travel to be on at least one train a day, and the Gauge Act of 1846 to make sure the trains ran on the same sort of rails. Railways and Economic Development Railways had a major impact on farming, as perishable goods such as dairy products could now be moved long distances before they were inedible. The standard of living rose as a result. New companies formed to both run railways and take advantage of the possibilities, and a major new employer was created. At the height of the railway boom, massive amounts of Britain’s industrial output were funneled into the construction, boosting industry, and when the British boom subsided these materials were exported to build railways abroad. Social Impact of Railways In order for trains to be timetabled, a standardized time was introduced across Britain, making it a more uniform place. Suburbs began to form as white collar workers moved out from the inner cities, and some working-class districts were demolished for new rail buildings. Opportunities for travel broadened as the working class could now travel further and more freely, although some conservatives worried this would cause a revolt. Communications were vastly sped up, and regionalization began to break down. Importance of the Railways The effect of railways in the Industrial Revolution is often exaggerated. They did not cause industrialization  and had no impact on the changing locations of industries as they only developed after 1830 and were initially slow to catch on. What they did do was allow the revolution to continue, provide further stimulus, and help to transform the mobility and diets of the population.